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Notes of Ch 6 Towns, Traders and Craftspersons Class 7th History

May 10, 2019, 10:39 am
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Notes of Ch 6 Towns, Traders and Craftspersons Class 7th History

• During Medieval period, towns are specified in the functions.

• The types of towns included a temple town, an administrative centre, a commercial town or a port town or others.

• Also, sometimes all functions were combined in a single town as well.

Administrative Centres

• Thanjavur, the capital of the Cholas was an administrative centre.

• The perennial river Kaveri flows near this beautiful town.

• Rajarajeshvara temple was built by King Rajaraja Chola by the architect Kunjaramallan Rajaraja
Perunthachchan in this town.

• There are palaces with mandapas or pavilions.

• The town is bustling with markets selling grain, spices, cloth and jewellery.

Temple Towns and Pilgrimage Centres

• Thanjavur is also an example of a temple town which represent a very important pattern of urbanisation, the process by which cities develop.

• Temples were often central to the economy and society.

• Temples were granted land and money to carry out elaborate rituals, feed pilgrims and priests and celebrate festivals.
→ Pilgrims who flocked to the temples also made donations.

• Temple authorities used their wealth to finance trade and banking.

• Pilgrimage centres also slowly developed into townships.

A Network of Small Towns

• From the eighth century onwards, several small towns started developing from large villages in the subcontinent.

• They usually had a mandapika (or mandi of later times) and market streets called hatta (haat of later times) lined with shops.

• There were streets for different kinds of artisans such as potters, oil pressers, sugar makers, toddy makers, smiths, stonemasons, etc.

• Usually a samanta or, in later times, a zamindar levied taxes on traders, artisans and articles of trade and sometimes “donated” the “right” to collect these taxes to local temples.

Traders Big and Small

• Traders had to pass through many kingdoms and forests, they usually travelled in caravans and formed guilds to protect their interests.

• The Chettiars and the Marwari Oswal went on to become the main trading groups of the country.

• Gujarati traders, including the communities of Hindu Baniyas and Muslim Bohras, traded extensively with the ports of the Red Sea, Persian Gulf, East Africa, Southeast Asia and China.

• The towns on the west coast were home to Arab, Persian, Chinese, Jewish and Syrian Christian traders.

Crafts in Towns

• The Panchalas or Vishwakarma community, consisting of goldsmiths, bronzesmiths, blacksmiths, masons and carpenters, were essential to the building of temples.

• Weavers such as the Saliyar or Kaikkolars emerged as prosperous communities, making donations to temples.

The Architectural Splendour of Hampi

• Hampi is located in the Krishna-Tungabhadra basin, which formed the nucleus of the Vijayanagara
Empire, founded in 1336.

• It was a well-fortified city.

• The architecture of Hampi was distinguished by arches, domes and pillared halls with niches for holding sculptures.

• Temples were the hub of cultural activities and devadasis (temple dancers) performed before the deity.

• Hampi fell into ruin following the defeat of Vijayanagara in 1565 by the Deccani Sultans.

A Gateway to the West: Surat

• Surat in Gujarat was the emporium of western trade during the Mughal period.

• In the seventeenth century the Portuguese, Dutch and English had their factories and warehouses at Surat.

• There were also several retail and wholesale shops selling cotton textiles.

• The Kathiawad seths or mahajans (moneychangers) had huge banking houses at Surat.

• Surat began to decline towards the end of the seventeenth century because
→ The loss of markets and productivity because of the decline of the Mughal Empire
→ Control of the sea routes by the Portuguese
→ Competition from Bombay.

Fishing in Troubled Waters: Masulipatnam

• The town of Masulipatnam or Machlipatnam (literally, fish port town) lay on the delta of the Krishna river.

• The fort at Masulipatnam was built by the Dutch.

• The competition among various trading groups the Golconda nobles, Persian merchants, Telugu Komati Chettis, and European traders made the city populous and prosperous.

• In 1686-1687 Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb annexed Golconda.

• This caused the European Companies to look for alternatives.

• As the Company traders moved to Bombay, Calcutta and Madras (present-day Chennai), Masulipatnam lost both its merchants and prosperity.

New Towns and Traders

• The eighteenth century saw the rise of Bombay, Calcutta and Madras, which are nodal cities today.

• The “blacks” or native traders and craftspersons were confined here while the “white” rulers occupied the superior residencies of Fort St. George in Madras or Fort St. William in Calcutta.

NCERT Solutions of Chapter 6 Towns, Traders and Craftspersons

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Notes of Ch 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities Class 7th History

May 12, 2019, 3:00 am
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Notes of Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities Class 7th History

• In large parts of the subcontinent, society was already divided according to the rules of varna. 



• These rules, as prescribed by the Brahmanas, were accepted by the rulers of large kingdoms.

Beyond Big Cities: Tribal Societies

• Tribes who lived beyond the cities did not follow the social rules and rituals prescribed by the Brahmanas.

• Many large tribes thrived in different parts of the subcontinent. 
→ They usually lived in forests, hills, deserts and places difficult to reach.

• The caste-based and tribal societies also depended on each other for their diverse needs.

Who were Tribal People?

• Tribal people were found in almost every region of the subcontinent.

• In Punjab:
→ The Khokhar tribe was very influential during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
→ Later, the Gakkhars became more important.

• In Multan and Sind:
→ The Langahs and Arghuns dominated extensive regions.

• In the North-West:
→ The Balochis

• In the western Himalaya:
→ The Gaddis.

• In north-eastern part of the subcontinent:
→ The Nagas, Ahoms and many others.

• In many areas of present-day Bihar and Jharkhand:
→ Chero chiefdoms had emerged by the twelfth century.
→ The Mundas and Santals were other important tribes that lived in this region and also in Orissa and Bengal.

• In Maharashtra highlands, Karnataka and southern regions:
→ Kolis, Berads, Koragas, Vetars, Maravars and others.

• In Western and central India:
→ The large tribe of Bhils.

• In present-day states of Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh:
→ The Gonds

How Nomads and Mobile People Lived

• Nomadic pastoralists moved over long distances with their animals.

• They lived on milk and other pastoral products.

• They also exchanged wool, ghee, etc., with settled agriculturists for grain, cloth, utensils and other products.

• The Banjaras were the most important trader-nomads.

• Many pastoral tribes reared and sold animals, such as cattle and horses, to the prosperous people.

Changing Society: New Castes and Hierarchies

• Many tribes and social groups were taken into caste-based society and given the status of jatis.
→ Specialised artisans smiths, carpenters and masons were also recognised as separate jatis by the Brahmanas.

• Among the Kshatriyas, new Rajput clans became powerful by the eleventh and twelfth centuries.

• With the support of the Brahmanas, many tribes became part of the caste system.

A Closer Look

Gonds

• The Gonds lived in a vast forested region called Gondwana.

• They practised shifting cultivation.

• The large Gond tribe was divided into many smaller clans and each clan had its own raja (king).

• The administrative system of these kingdoms was becoming centralised.

• The emergence of large states changed the nature of Gond society as equal society gradually got divided into unequal social classes.

• Garha Katanga was a rich state of Gond. When the Mughals defeated the Gonds, they annexed part of the kingdom and granted the rest to Chandra Shah.

• After this, Gond became much weaker and later struggled unsuccessfully against the stronger Bundelas and Marathas.

The Ahoms

• The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from present-day Myanmar in the thirteenth century.

• During the sixteenth century, they annexed the kingdoms of the Chhutiyas (1523) and of Koch-Hajo (1581) and subjugated many other tribes.

• The Ahoms built a large state using firearms as early as 1530s.
→ By 1660s, they could make high-quality gunpowder and cannons.

• In 1662, they were defeated by the Mughals but Mughal control could not last long.

• The Ahom state depended upon forced labour.

• By the first half of the seventeenth century the administration became quite centralised.

• Ahom society was divided into clans or khels.

• The Ahoms worshipped their own tribal gods.
→ During 1714-1744, Hinduism became the predominant religion.

NCERT Solutions of Chapter 7 Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

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Notes of Ch 8 Devotional Paths to Divine Class 7th History

May 12, 2019, 5:23 pm
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Notes of Chapter 8 Devotional Paths to Divine Class 7th History

• Since the eighth century, the legacy of various kinds of bhakti and Sufi movements have evolved.

The Idea of a Supreme God

• Before the existence of large kingdoms, different groups of people worshipped their own gods and goddesses.

• The belief that social privileges came from birth in a “noble” family or a “high” caste was the subject of many learned texts.

• Many people were uneasy with such ideas and turned to the teachings of the Buddha or the Jainas.
→ Others felt attracted to the idea of a Supreme God who could deliver humans from such bondage if approached with devotion (or bhakti).

• Gods and goddesses worshipped in different areas came to be identified with Shiva, Vishnu or Durga.

• The idea of bhakti became so popular that even Buddhists and Jainas adopted these beliefs.

A New Kind of Bhakti in South India – Nayanars and Alvars

• The seventh to ninth centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements, led by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu).

• The Nayanars and Alvars went from place to place composing exquisite poems in praise of the deities.

• Between the tenth and twelfth centuries the Chola and Pandya kings built elaborate temples strengthening the links between the bhakti tradition and temple worship.

Philosophy and Bhakti


• Shankara born in Kerala, one of the most influential philosophers of India advocated Advaita or the doctrine of the oneness of the individual soul and the Supreme God.

• Ramanuja, born in Tamil Nadu in the eleventh century, was deeply influenced by the Alvars described best means of attaining salvation was through intense devotion to Vishnu.

Basavanna’s Virashaivism

• Virashaiva movement initiated by Basavanna and his companions like Allama Prabhu and Akkamahadevi. 

• This movement began in Karnataka in the mid-twelfth century. 

• The Virashaivas argued strongly for the equality of all human beings and against Brahmanical ideas about caste and the treatment of women.

The Saints of Maharashtra

• From the thirteenth to the seventeenth centuries Maharashtra saw a great number of saint-poets such as Dnyaneshwar (Gyaneshwar), Namdev, Eknath and Tukaram as well as women like Sakhubai and the family of Chokhamela, who belonged to the “untouchable” Mahar caste.

• These saint-poets rejected all forms of ritualism.

Nathpanthis, Siddhas and Yogis

• A number of religious groups that emerged during this period criticised the ritual and other aspects of conventional religion and the social order.
→ These were the Nathpanthis, Siddhacharas and Yogis.

• To them the path to salvation lay in meditation on the formless Ultimate Reality and the realisation of oneness with it.

Islam and Sufism

• Sufis were Muslim mystics who rejected outward religiosity and emphasised love and devotion to God and compassion towards all fellow human beings.

• In the eighth and ninth centuries religious scholars developed different aspects of the Holy Law (Shariat) and theology of Islam.

• The Sufis often rejected the elaborate rituals and codes of behaviour demanded by Muslim religious scholars.

• A large number of Sufis from Central Asia settled in Hindustan from the eleventh century onwards.

• The Sufi masters held their assemblies in their khanqahs or hospices. 

New Religious Developments in North India

• The period after the thirteenth century saw a new wave of the bhakti movement in north India.

• People, especially craftspersons, peasants, traders and labourers, thronged to listen to these new saints and spread their ideas.

• Some of them like Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak rejected all orthodox religions. 

• Others like Tulsidas and Surdas accepted existing beliefs and practices but wanted to make these accessible to all.

• This tradition also included saints like Dadu Dayal, Ravidas and Mirabai.

• A unique feature of most of the saints is that their works were composed in regional languages and could be sung.

A Closer Look: Kabir

• Kabir, who probably lived in the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries, was one of the most influential saints.

• He composed vast collection of verses called sakhis and pads which was sung by wandering bhajan singers.

• His teachings openly ridiculed all forms of external worship.

A Closer Look: Baba Guru Nanak

• Baba Guru Nanak (1469-1539) born at Talwandi and travelled widely before establishing a centre
at Kartarpur.

• Before his death in 1539, Baba Guru Nanak appointed one of his followers as his successor known as Guru Angad.

• Guru Angad compiled the compositions of Baba Guru Nanak and added a new script known as Gurmukhi.

• The number of Baba Guru Nanak’s followers increased through the sixteenth century under his successors.

• By the beginning of the seventeenth century the town of Ramdaspur (Amritsar) had developed around the central Gurdwara called Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple).

• The Sikh movement began to get politicised in the seventeenth century.

• Guru Nanak emphasised the importance of the worship of one God.
→ He insisted that caste, creed or gender was irrelevant for attaining liberation.


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Notes of Ch 9 The Making of Regional Culture Class 7th History

May 13, 2019, 10:53 am
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Notes of Chapter 9 The Making of Regional Culture Class 7th History

• Each region has its kind of language, food, clothes, poetry, dance, music and painting.

The Cheras and the Development of Malayalam

• The Chera kingdom of Mahodayapuram was established in the ninth century in the south-western part of the peninsula, part of present-day Kerala.

• The rulers introduced the Malayalam language and script in their inscriptions.

• The first literary works in Malayalam, dated to about the twelfth century, are directly indebted to Sanskrit.

Rulers and Religious Traditions: The Jagannatha Cult

• The best example of this process is the cult of Jagannatha (literally, lord of the world, a name for Vishnu) at Puri, Orissa.

• In the twelfth century, one of the most important rulers of the Ganga dynasty, Anantavarman, decided to erect a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri.

The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism

• In the nineteenth century, the region that constitutes most of present-day Rajasthan, was called Rajputana by the British.

• Rajput rulers cherished the ideal of the hero who fought valiantly.

• Stories about Rajput heroes were recorded in poems and songs.

Beyond Regional Frontiers: The Story of Kathak

• The term kathak is derived from katha, a word used in Sanskrit and other languages for story.

• The kathaks were originally a caste of story-tellers in temples of north India.

• Itbegan evolving into a distinct mode of dance in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries with the spread of the bhakti movement.

• Under the Mughal emperors and their nobles, Kathak was performed in the court.

• It developed in two traditions or gharanas: one in the courts of Rajasthan (Jaipur) and the other in Lucknow.

• By the third quarter of the nineteenth century it was firmly established as a dance form in the adjoining areas of present-day Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh.

Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures

• Miniatures are small-sized paintings.

• The Mughal emperors Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan patronised highly skilled painters.

• With the decline of the Mughal Empire, many painters moved out to the courts of the emerging regional states.

• They retained and developed their distinctive characteristics.

• Basohli and Kangra School of miniature paintings developed in the Himalayas from the seventeenth century.

A Closer Look: Bengal

The Growth of a Regional Language

• Now-a-days, People in Bengal spoke Bengali.

• From the fourth to the third centuries BCE, commercial ties began to develop between Bengal and Magadha, which led to the growing influence of Sanskrit.

• During the fourth century the Gupta rulers established political control over north Bengal and began to settle Brahmanas in this area.

• In the seventh century the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang observed that languages related to Sanskrit were in use all over Bengal.

• In 1586, when Akbar conquered Bengal, it formed the nucleus of the Bengal suba.
→ During this period, Bengali developed as regional language.

• In fact by the fifteenth century the Bengali group of dialects came to be united by a common literary language.

• Early Bengali literature may be divided into two categories: Sanskritic and Nath literature.

Pirs and Temples

• From the sixteenth century, people began to migrate in large numbers from the less fertile western Bengal to the forested and marshy areas of south-eastern Bengal.

• The early settlers sought some order and assurance in the unstable conditions of the new settlements.

• The community leaders, called pirs, were the source of order and stability for the early settlers.
→ They included Sufi saints, soldiers, colonisers, Hindu and Buddhist deities and spirits.

• From the fifteenth century onwards, temple construction started on a large scale.

Fish as food

• Fish and rice are available in plenty in the riverine plains of Bengal. Thus, these became the staple food items.

NCERT Solutions of Chapter 9 The Making of Regional Culture

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Notes of Ch 10 Eighteenth-Century Political Formations Class 7th History

May 13, 2019, 10:30 pm
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Notes of Chapter 10 Eighteenth-Century Political Formations Class 7th History

The Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals

• By the end of the seventeenth century, Mughal Empire was shrinking. There are various factors behind this:

→ Emperor Aurangzeb had depleted the military and financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in the Deccan.

→ Under his successors, the efficiency of the imperial administration broke down.

→ Peasant and zamindari rebellions in many parts of northern and western India.

→ In the midst of this economic and political crisis, the ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah, sacked and plundered the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immense amounts of wealth.

→ The empire was further weakened by competition amongst different groups of nobles. They were divided into two major groups or factions, the Iranis and Turanis.

Emergence of New States

• Through the eighteenth century, the Mughal Empire gradually divided into a number of independent, regional states. 

• Broadly these independent states can be divided into three groups: 

→ States that were old Mughal provinces like Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad.

→ States that had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs. These included several Rajput principalities. 

→ States under the control of Marathas, Sikhs and others like the Jats. These had seized their independence from the Mughals after a long-drawn armed struggle.

The Old Mughal Provinces

Hyderabad

• Founded by: Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah (1724-1748) was powerful member at the court of the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar.

• Asaf Jah brought skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India.

• He appointed mansabdars and granted jagirs.

• The state of Hyderabad was constantly engaged in a struggle against the Marathas to the west and with independent Telugu warrior chiefs (nayakas) of the plateau.

Awadh

• Founded by: Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa‘adat Khan.

• Awadh was a prosperous region, controlling the rich alluvial Ganga plain and the main trade route
between north India and Bengal.

• Sa‘adat Khan tried to decrease Mughal influence in the Awadh region.

• He reduced the size of jagirs, and appointed his own loyal servants to vacant positions.

• The state sold the right to collect tax to the highest bidders called ijaradars.

Bengal

• Founded by: Murshid Quli Khan

• He very quickly seized all the power that went with formal subadar office.

• He commanded the revenue administration of the state.

• Revenue was collected in cash with great strictness from all zamindars.

• Under the rule of Alivardi Khan (r. 1740-1756), the banking house of Jagat Seth became extremely prosperous.

The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs

• Many Rajput kings were permitted to enjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs.

• In the eighteenth century, these rulers now attempted to extend their control over adjacent regions.

• Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of Gujarat and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber was governor of Malwa.

• They tried to extend their territories by seizing portions of imperial territories neighbouring
their watans.

• Maratha campaigns into Rajasthan from the 1740s checked their further expansion.

Seizing Independence

The Sikhs

• During the seventeenth century, Sikhs built regional state, Punjab.

• Several battles were fought by Guru Gobind Singh against the Rajput and Mughal rulers.

• After his death in 1708, the Khalsa rose in revolt against the Mughal authority under Banda Bahadur’s leadership.
→ Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 and executed in 1716.

• The Sikh territories in the late eighteenth century extended from the Indus to the Jamuna but they were divided under different rulers.

• Maharaja Ranjit Singh, reunited these groups and established his capital at Lahore in 1799.

The Marathas

• Shivaji (1627-1680) carved out a stable Maratha kingdom with the support of powerful warrior families (deshmukhs).

• After Shivaji’s death, effective power in the Maratha state was exercises by a family of Chitpavan Brahmanas who served Shivaji’s successors as Peshwa (or principal minister).

• Between 1720 and 1761, the Maratha empire expanded.

• By the 1730s, the Maratha king was recognised as the overlord of the entire Deccan peninsula.

• The Marathas developed an effective administrative system as well.

• New trade routes emerged within the areas controlled by the Marathas.

The Jats

• The Jats consolidated their power during the late seventeenth and eighteenth-centuries.

• Under their leader, Churaman, they acquired control over territories situated to the west of the city of Delhi.

• The Jats were prosperous agriculturists.

• The important trading centres in the areas under Jats were Panipat and Ballabgarh.

NCERT Solutions of Chapter 10 Eighteenth-Century Political Formations

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Notes of Ch 1 On Equality Class 7th Civics

May 15, 2019, 10:28 am
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Notes of Chapter 1 On Equality Class 7th Civics

Equal right to vote

• In a democratic country, like India, all adults irrespective their religion, their education, caste, or rich or poor are allowed to vote.
→ This is called Universal Adult Franchise.

• The idea of universal adult franchise is based on the idea of equality.

Other kinds of equality

• The poverty is one of main basis of inequality in India.

• Apart from poverty, people in India experience inequality in different ways.

• Caste is one of the more common forms of inequality in India.
→ Dalits (lower castes) still face discrimination in various ways.

Recognising dignity

• When persons are treated unequally, their dignity is violated.

Equality in Indian democracy

• The Indian Constitution recognizes every person as equal.

• This is not to say that inequality ceases to exist.

• But at least, in democratic India, the principle of the equality of all persons is recognized.

• Now there are several laws to see that people are treated with dignity and as equals.

• There are certain provision provided in the constitution for the recognition of equality:

→ Every person is equal before the law.

→ No person can be discriminated against on the basis of their religion, race, caste, place of birth or whether they are female or male. 

→ Every person has access to all public places including playgrounds, hotels, shops and markets.

• The two ways in which the government has tried to implement the equality:
→ Through laws in the Constitution. 
→ Through government programmes or schemes to help disadvantaged communities. 

Issues of equality in other democracies

• India is the only democratic country in which there is inequality and where the struggle for equality continues to exist.

• In many democratic countries around the world, the issue of equality continues to be the key issue around which communities struggle.

• For example, in United States of America, the African–Americans whose ancestors were the slaves who were brought over from Africa, continue to describe their lives today as largely unequal. 
→ This, despite the fact that there was a movement in the late 1950s to push for equal rights for African– Americans. 


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Notes of Ch 2 Role of the Government in Health Class 7th Civics

May 15, 2019, 11:04 pm
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Notes of Chapter 2 Role of the Government in Health Class 7th Civics

What is health?

• Health means ability to remain free of illness and injuries. 

• Apart from disease, there are various factors that affect our health.

• For example, if people get clean drinking water or a pollution free environment, they are likely to be healthy.

Healthcare in India

• India has a large number of doctors, clinics and hospitals.

• The country also has considerable experience and knowledge in running a public healthcare system.

• There are two types of health care facilities: 
→ Public health services
→ Private health facilities

Public health services

• The public health service is a chain of health centers and hospitals run by the government. 

• At the village level there are health centres where there is usually a nurse and a village health worker.

• At the district level is the District Hospital that also supervises all the health centres.

• The public health service is meant to provide quality health care services either free or at a low cost, so that even the poor can seek treatment.

• According to our Constitution, it is the primary duty of the government to ensure the welfare of the people and provide health care facilities to all. 
→ The government must safeguard the Right to Life of every person.

Private health facilities

• A large number of doctors run their own private clinics. In the rural areas, one finds Registered Medical Practitioners (RMPs). 

• Urban areas have a large number of doctors, many of them providing specialised services.

• Private health facilities are not owned or controlled by the government. 

• The patients have to pay a lot of money for every service that they use.

Is adequate healthcare available to all? 

• In India, we face a situation where private services are increasing but public services are not. 

• Private services are concentrated in urban areas. 

• The cost of these services is rather high. 

• Medicines are expensive.

• For those who are poor, every illness in the family is a cause of great anxiety and distress.

• They are not provided with basic necessities like drinking water, adequate housing, clean surroundings, etc., and therefore, are more likely to fall ill.

• Many tribal areas have few health centres and they do not run properly.

What can be done? 

• It is the responsibility of the government to provide quality healthcare services to all its citizens, especially the poor and the disadvantaged.

Case Study of Costa Rica

• Costa Rica is considered to be one of the healthiest countries in South America. 

• The Costa Rican government provides basic services and amenities to all Costa Ricans. 

• For example, it provides safe drinking water, sanitation, nutrition and housing. 


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Notes of Ch 2 Biological Classification | Class 11th Biology

May 16, 2019, 3:55 am
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Study Material and Notes of Ch 2 Biological Classification Class 11th Biology

Topics in the Chapter

  • Systems of Classification
  • Kingdom Monera
  • Kingdom Protista
  • Kingdom Fungi
  • Classes of Fungi
  • Viruses
  • Structure of Virus
  • Diseases caused in humans
  • Viroids
  • Lichens

System of Classification

• Earliest classification was given by Aristotle. He divided plants into herbs, shrubs and trees.
 Animals into those with red blood and those who do not have it.

• Two kingdom classification: Given by Carolous Linneaeus. They are:
(i) Kingdom plantae
(ii) Kingdom Animalia

• Five kingdom classification: Given by R.H. Whittaker. They are:
(i) Monera
(ii) Protista
(iii) Fungi
(iv) Plantae
(v) Animalia

• The main criteria for classiÆcation of organisms into Æve kingdoms include cell structure, thallus organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships.

Kingdom Monera

• Has bacteria as sole members.

• Bacteria can have shapes like : Coccus (spherical), Bacillus (rod-shaped), Vibrium (comma shaped) and spirillum (spiral shaped).

• Bacteria found almost everywhere and can be Photosynthetic autotrophs, Chemosyn thetic autotrophs or Heterotrophs.

• Bacteria are divides in two parts:
(i) Archaebacteria
(ii) Eubacteria

• Halophiles (salt-loving)

• Thermoacidophiles (in hot springs)

• Methanogens (in marsh and in gut of ruminant animals. Produce methane gas.)

• Photosynthetic autotrophs like Cyanobacteria (Blue-green algae-BGA). Some like Anabaena and Nostoc have specialized cells called heterocysts for nitrogen fixation.

• Algae bloom is rich growth of blue green algae over the surface of polluted water bodies.

• Algae bloom releases neurotoxins, deplete oxygen and water unfit for use.

• Chemosynthetic autotrophs : Oxidise various inorganic substances like nitrates/nitrites, ammonia and use released energy for their ATP proudction. They helps in nutrients recycling of N, P, Fe and S.

• Heterotophic bacteria: Decomposers, help in making curd, production of antibiotic, N2 fixation, casuse disesaes like cholera, typhoid, tetanus and citrus canker.

• Mycoplasmas: Completely lack cell wall. Smallest living cells. Can survive without oxygen. Pathogenic in aniamls and plants.

Kingdom Protista

• It comprises of all single celled eukaryotes.

• Forms a link between plants, animals and fungi.

(i) Chrysophytes (Has diatoms and golden algae/desmids)

→ Fresh water/marine, photosynthetic, microscopic plankton.

→ Cell walls have silica which makes it indestructible and cell walls overlap to fit together like a soap box.

→ Their accumulation forms 'Diagomaceous Earth' (gritty soil)

→ Used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.

(ii) Dinoflagellates

→ Marine, photosynthetic cell wall has stiff cellulose plates.

→Two flagella, one longitudinal and other trnasverse in a furrow between wall plates.

→ Example : Gonyaulax multiples rapdily, make sea appear red (red tides) and produce toxins to kill marine animals.

(iii) Euglenoids

→ Found in stagnant fresh water.

→ Have protein rich layer ëpellicleí which makes body flexible.

→ Photosynthetic in presence of sunlight but become heterotrophs if they do not get sunlight. (Mixotrophic nutrition)

→ Example : Euglena

(iv) Slime Moulds

• Saprophytic protists

• Under suitable conditions form an aggregates called plasmodium, grows on decaying twigs and leaves.

• During unfavourable conditions, plasmodium differentiates and forms fruting bodies bearing spores at their tips.

• Spores have true walls which are exrtremely resistant and survive for many years and dispersed by air currents.
(v) Protozoans: Are heterotrops and live as predators or parasites. Have four major groups.

• Amoeboid: Catch prey using pseudopodia. Example: Amoeba. Entamoeba are parasite.

• Flagellated : Have one or more flagella. Cause disease like Sleeping

• Sickness e.g., trypanosoma.

• Ciliated : Have clilia to move food into gullet and help in locomotion. e.g., Paramoecium.

• Sporozoans : Have infective spore like stage in life cycle, e.g., Plasmodium which causes malaria.

Kingdom Fungi

• Heterotrophic organisms

• Non chlorpohyllous hyphae

• Network of hyphae called mycelium

• Hyphae which have multinucleate cytoplasm are called coenocytic hyphae

• Cell wall of chitin and polysaccharides

• Cosmopolitan. Grow in warm and humid places.

• Saprophytic, parasitic, symbiotic (Lichen and Mycorrhiza) e.g., Puccinia, (wheat rust disesae), Penicillium, Yeast is a unicellular fungus.

• Reprouction can take place by vegetative means fragmentation, fission and budding. Asexual reproduction by spores-conidia, sporangiospores or zoospores. Sexual reproduction by Oospores, ascospores and basidiospores produced in fruiting bodies.

• Sexual cycle involves 3 steps:
(i) Plasmogamy (fusion of Protoplasms.)
(ii) Karyagamy (fusion of two nuclei.)
(iii) Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.

• Dikaryophase is a condition of having dikaryon in an intervening dikaryotic stage (n + n i.e., two nuclei per cell) between plasmogamy and karyogamy in fungi like ascomycetes and basidiomycetes.

Classes of Fungi

(i) Phycomycetes:

→ grow on decaying wood or as obligate parasites on plants.

→ Mycelium aseptate and coenocytic.

→ Spores produced endogenously in sporangium.

→ Asexual repdouction by Zoospores or Aplanospores

→ Zygospores are formed by the fusion of gametes. Example: Rhizopus, Albugo, Mucor

(ii) Ascomycetes:

→ also known as ‘sac fungi’.

→ Are saprophytic, decomposers, parasitic or coprophilous (growing on dung).

→ Mycelium branched and septate.

→ Asexual spores are called conidia produced exogenously on the conidiophores.

→ Sexual spores are called ascospores produced endogenously in ascus, produced inside fruiting body called Ascocarp.

→ Example: Aspergillus, Neurospora, Sacharomyces (Unicellular fungi), Claviceps, morels, trufles.

(iii) Basidiomycetes:

→ Mycelium septate and branched.

→ Generally asexual sprors are not found.

→ Vegetative reproduction by fragmentation.

→ Sexual reproduction by fusion of vegetative or somatic cells to form basidium produced in basidiocarp.

→ Basidium produces four basidiospores exogenously after meiosis.
Example: Agaricus, Ustilago, Puccinia.

(iv) Deuteromycetes:

→ Called as ‘Fungi Imperfecti’ as sexual form (perfect stage) is not known for them.

→ Once sexual form is discovered the member is moved t o Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes.

→ Mycelium is septate and branched.

→ They are saprophytic parasitic or decomposers.

→ Example: Alternaria, Colletotrichum, Trichoderma.

Viruses:

→ They did not find a place in classification.

→ Not truly living.

→  non-cellular organisms which take over the machinery of host cell on entering it and become living but as such they have inert crystalline structure appear non-living. So, difficult to call them living or non-living.

→ Virus means venom of poisonous fluid. Pastuer gave the term virus.

→ D.J. Ivanowsky found out that certain microbes caused Tobacco Mosaic Disease in tobacco plant.

→ M.W. Beijerinek called fluid as ‘Contagium vivum fluidum’ as extracts of infected plants of tobacco could cause infection in healthy plants.

→ W.M. Stanely showed viruses could be crystallized to form crystatls of protein which are inert outside their specific host.

→ Viruses are obligate parasites.

Structure of Virus:

→ It is a nucleoprotein made up of protein coat called Capsid. Capsid is made up of capsomeres arranged in helical or polyhedral-geometric forms. Have either DNA or RNA as genetic material which may be single or double stranded.

→ Usually plant viruses have single stranded RNA; bacteriophages have double stranded DNA and animal viruses have single or double stranded RNA or double stranded DNA.

Diseases caused in humans:

→ Mumps, Small pox, herpes, influenza and AIDS etc. In plants, symptoms can be mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing and stunted growth.

Viroids:

→ Infectious agent, free RNA (lack protein coat)

→ RNA has low molecular weight.

→ Causes potato spindle tuber disease.

→ Discovered by T.O. Diener.

Lichens:

→ Symbiotic association between algal component (Phycobiont) and fungal component (mycobiont). Algae provides food. Fungi provides shelter and absorb nutrients and water for alga.

→ Good pollution indicators as they do not grow in polluted areas.

NCERT Solutions of Class 12 Biological Classification
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Notes of Ch 3 How the State Government Works Class 7th Civics

May 16, 2019, 11:51 am
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Notes of Chapter 3 How the State Government Works Class 7th Civics

MLAs

• Every state in India has a Legislative Assembly.

• Each state is divided into different areas or constituencies.

• From each constituency, the people elect one representative who then becomes a Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA).
→ These MLAs belong to different political parties.

• A political party whose MLAs have won more than half the number of constituencies in a state can be said to be in a majority. 

• The political party that has the majority is called the ruling party and all other members are called the opposition.

• After the elections, the MLAs belonging to the ruling party will elect their leader who will become the chief minister.

• The chief minister then selects other people as ministers.

A debate in the Legislative Assembly

• The Legislative Assembly is building situated in the capital of the state where all the MLAs from ruling and opposition parties meet to discuss and debate issues.

• During debate time in the assembly, MLAs can express their opinions and ask questions related to the issue or give suggestions about what should be done by the government. 

• Those who wish to, can respond to this. 

• The minister then replies to the questions and tries to assure the Assembly that adequate steps are being taken.

• The chief minister and other ministers have to take decisions and run the government.

• Whatever decisions are being taken have to be approved by the members of the legislative assembly.

• All the MLAs who gather together in the legislative assembly are called the Legislature.

Working of the government

• There are various newspapers, TV channels and other organisations regularly talking about the government. 

• In a democracy, there are various ways through which people express their views and also take action.

• There are various departments such as the Education Department, the Public Works Department, the Health Department etc.headed by their respective ministers.

• The chief minister and the ministers take action through these departments.

• Whatever work is done by these departments has to be approved by the members of the legislative assembly.


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Notes of Ch 4 Growing up as Boys and Girls Class 7th Civics

May 16, 2019, 12:54 pm
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Notes of Chapter 4 Growing up as Boys and Girls Class 7th Civics

Growing up in Samoa in the 1920s

• The Samoan Islands are part of a large group of small islands in the southern part of the Pacific Ocean.

• In the 1920s, according to research reports on Samoan society, children did not go to school.

• Older children, often as young as five years old, took over this responsibility.

• By the time a boy was about nine years old, he joined the older boys in learning outdoor jobs like fishing and planting coconuts. 

• Girls had to continue looking after small children or do errands for adults till they were teenagers.

• After the age of fourteen or so, girls also went on fishing trips, worked in the plantations, learnt how to weave baskets.

Growing up male in Madhya Pradesh in the 1960s

• From Class VI onwards, boys and girls went to separate schools. 

• The girl’s school had a central courtyard where they played in seclusion and safety from the world outside. 

• Boys’ school did not have separate enclosures.

• The boys used the streets as a place to stand around idling, to play, to try out tricks with their bicycles.

• The girls always went in groups because they also carried fears of being teased or attacked.

Distinctions between boys and girls

• Societies make clear distinctions between boys and girls from an early age.

• Boys are usually given cars to play with and girls dolls.

• This difference is created in the smallest and most everyday things such as how girls must dress, what games boys should play, how girls need to talk softly or boys need to be tough.

• In most societies, the roles men and women play or the work they do, are not valued equally.

Valuing housework

• The main responsibility for housework and care-giving tasks is done by the women.

• For this they does not have to be paid for, thus, society devalues this work.

Lives of domestic workers

• Most domestic workers are women.

• Wages paid are low as domestic work is not regarded as valuable.

• Housework requires a lot of physical labour and is time consuming.

• In rural areas, fetching water and carrying firewood are strenuous and physically demanding activities.

Women’s work and equality

• The inequality between men and women has to be dealt with through actions not just at the level of the individual or the family but also by the government.

• The Constitution says that being male or female should not become a reason for discrimination.

• The government is, therefore, committed to understanding the reasons for this and taking positive steps to remedy the situation.

• The government has set up anganwadis or child-care centres in several villages in the country and has passed laws that make it mandatory for organisations that have more than 30 women employees to provide crèche facilities.


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Notes of Ch 5 Women Change the World Class 7th Civics

May 17, 2019, 10:38 am
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Notes of Chapter 5 Women Change the World Class 7th Civics

Fewer opportunities and rigid expectations

• People thinks that men and women are meant do to specific works.

• The reason they did this is because they feel that outside the home too, women are good at only certain jobs.

• Many people believe in these stereotypes, many girls do not get the same support that boys do to study and train to become doctors and engineers.

Learning for change

• Today, it is difficult for us to imagine that school and learning could be seen as not appropriate for some children.

• In the past, the skill of reading and writing was known to only a few. 

• In the nineteenth century, many new ideas about education and learning emerged.

Schooling and education today

• Today, both boys and girls attend school in large numbers. 

• There still remain differences between the education of boys and girls.

• According to the 1961 census, about 40 per cent of all boys and men (7 years old and above) were literate compared to just 15 per cent of all girls and women. 

• In the most recent census of 2011, these figures have grown to 82 per cent for boys and men, and 65 per cent for girls and women.

• The percentage of the male group is still higher than the female group. 

• SC and ST girls leave school at a rate that is higher than the category ‘All Girls’. 

• The 2011 census also found that Muslim girls are less likely, than Dalit and Adivasi girls, to complete primary school.

Women’s movement

• Women and girls now have the right to study and go to school.

• Women individually, and collectively have struggled to bring about these changes. This struggle is known as the Women’s Movement.

• Many men support the women’s movement as well. 

Campaigning

• Campaigns to fight discrimination and violence against women are an important part of the women’s movement. 

• A law was made in 2006 to give women who face physical and mental violence within their homes, also called domestic violence, some legal protection.

Raising Awareness

• The women’s movements’ message has been spread through street plays, songs and public meetings.

Protesting

• The women’s movement raises its voice when violations against women take place.

Showing Solidarity

• The women’s movement is also about showing solidarity with other women and causes.


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Notes of Ch 6 Understanding Media Class 7th Civics

May 17, 2019, 10:38 pm
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Notes of Chapter 6 Understanding Media Class 7th Civics

• TV, radio and newspapers are a form of media that reaches millions of people, or the masses, across the country and the world and, thus, they are called mass media.

Media and technology

• Newspapers, television and radio can reach millions of people because they use certain technologies.

→ Print Media: Newspapers and Magazines.

→ Electronic Media: TV and Radio.

• Television images travel huge distances through satellites and cables which allows us to view news and entertainment channels from other parts of the world. 

Media and money

• The different technologies that mass media use are expensive. 

• In a news studio, it is not only the newsreader who needs to be paid but also a number of other people who help put the broadcast together.

• Due to these costs, the mass media needs a great deal of money to do its work.

• The mass media earns money is by advertising different things like cars, chocolates, clothes, mobile phones, etc.

Media and Democracy

• In a democracy, the media plays a very important role in providing news and discussing events taking place in the country and the world.

• Some of the ways in which they can do this is by writing letters to the concerned minister, organising a public protest, starting a signature campaign, asking the government to rethink its programme, etc.

Independent Media

• An independent media is important in a democracy.

• However, the reality is that media is far from independent because of two reasons:
→ The government has on the media.
→ Business houses control the media. 

Setting agendas

• The media also plays an important role in deciding what stories to focus on, and therefore, decides on what is newsworthy. 

• By focusing on particular issues, the media influences our thoughts, feelings and actions, and brings those issues to our attention.

• There are several instances when the media fails to focus on issues that are significant in our lives.


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Notes of Ch 7 Markets Around Us Class 7th Civics

May 18, 2019, 4:53 am
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Notes of Chapter 7 Markets Around Us Class 7th Civics


What are Markets?

• A market is a place purchaser and vender is associated with the deal and buy of merchandise. It built up a connection between the maker and the buyer.

Weekly market

• A weekly market is held on a specific day of the week.

• Many things in weekly markets are available at cheaper rates because they do not have permanent buildings, so that they do not have to pay rent, electricity bills, fees to the government and so on additional expenses.

• Weekly markets also have a large number of shops selling the same goods which means there is competition among them. 

Shops in the Neighbourhood

• Many of these are permanent shops, while others are roadside stalls such as that of the vegetable hawker, the fruit vendor, the mechanic, etc.

• These shops are very helpful as they are close to our home and we can go there on anytime.

• Usually, the buyer and seller know each other and these shops also provide goods on credit.

Shopping complexes and malls 

• There are other markets in the urban area that have many shops, popularly called shopping complexes.

• In these urban markets, you get both branded and non-branded goods.

Chain of markets

• We don’t buy directly from the factory or from the farm.

Traders

• The people in between the producer and the final consumer are the traders. 

• The wholesale trader first buys goods in large quantities. 

• In these markets, buying and selling takes place between traders. 

• It is through these links of traders that goods reach faraway places. 

• The trader who finally sells this to the consumer, is the retailer. 

Markets everywhere

• All these markets are in a specific locality and work in a particular manner and time. 

• These days one can place orders for a variety of things through the phone and these days through the Internet, and the goods are delivered at your home. 

• In clinics and nursing homes, sales representatives wait for the doctors. Such persons are also engaged in the selling of goods.

• Thus, buying and selling takes place in different ways, not necessarily through shops in the market.

Markets and equality

• Shop owners in a weekly market and those in a shopping complex are very different people. 

• The weekly market trader earns little compared to the profit of a regular shop owner in a shopping complex. 


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Notes of Ch 8 A Shirt in the Market Class 7th Civics

May 18, 2019, 7:58 am
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Notes of Chapter 8 A Shirt in the Market Class 7th Civics

• This chapter tells us the story of a shirt.

• It begins with the production of cotton and ends with the sale of the shirt.

A cotton farmer in Kurnool 

• A small farmer in Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh) grows cotton on their small piece of land.

• Once the reaping is done, cotton balls are gathered.

• Once the cotton is collected, farmer take the harvest to the local trader or to the neighbor merchant.

• Farmers earning from cotton cultivation is barely more than what they might have earned as a wage labourer.

The cloth market of Erode

• Erode’s bi-weekly cloth market in Tamil Nadu is one of the largest cloth markets in the world. 

• A large variety of cloth is sold in this market. 

• Around the market are offices of cloth merchants who buy this cloth. 

• These merchants supply cloth on order to garment manufacturers and exporters around the country. 

Putting-out system– weavers producing cloth at home

• The merchant distributes work among the weavers based on the orders he has received for cloth. 

• The weavers get the yarn from the merchant and supply him the cloth.

The garment exporting factory near Delhi

• The Erode merchant supplies the cotton cloth produced by the weavers to a garment exporting factory near Delhi. 

• The garment exporting factory will use the cloth to make shirts. 

• The shirts will be exported to foreign buyers.

• These large stores do business strictly on their own terms. 

Women’s worker

• In garment factory, most of them are women who are employed on a temporary basis. 

• Women are employed as helpers for thread cutting, buttoning, ironing and packaging which have the lowest wages.

Market and equality

• The foreign businessperson made huge profits in the market. 

• The garment exporter made only moderate profits. 

• The small cotton farmer and the weaver at Erode did not get a fair price in the market for what they produced. 

• The merchants or traders have earned more but it is still much less than the exporter.

• The market offers people opportunities for work and to be able to sell things that they grow or produce. 


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Notes of Ch 9 The Making of National Movement: 1870s-1947| Class 8th History

May 18, 2019, 10:29 am
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Notes of Chapter 9 The Making of National Movement: 1870s-1947 Class 8th History 

The Emergence of Nationalism

• India was the people of India where all the people irrespective of class, colour, caste, creed, language, or gender resides.

• The British were exercising control over the resources of India.

• The political associations were started forming after 1850, especially those that came into being in the 1870s and 1880s.

• The important ones were the Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, the Indian Association, the Madras Mahajan Sabha, the Bombay Presidency Association, and of course the Indian National Congress.

• The Arms Act was passed in 1878, disallowing Indians from possessing arms. 

• In the same year the Vernacular Press Act was also enacted in an effort to silence those who were critical of the government.

• The Indian National Congress was established when 72 delegates from all over the country met at Bombay in December 1885.
→ The early leadership – Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji, Romesh Chandra Dutt, S. Subramania Iyer, among others – was largely from Bombay and Calcutta.

A nation in the making

• The Congress in the first twenty years was “moderate” in its objectives and methods.

• It demanded that Indians be placed in high positions in the government. 
→ For this purpose it called for civil service examinations to be held in India as well.

• The early Congress also raised a number of economic issues.

“Freedom is our birthright”

• By the 1890s many Indians began to raise questions about the political style of the Congress. 

• In Bengal, Maharashtra and Punjab, leaders such as Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Lala Lajpat Rai started exploring more radical objectives and methods.

• Tilak raised the slogan, “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!”

• In 1905 Viceroy Curzon partitioned Bengal.
→ The partition of Bengal infuriated people all over India.

• The Swadeshi movement sought to oppose British rule and encourage the ideas of self-help, swadeshi enterprise, national education, and use of Indian languages.

• The Congress split in 1907 however the two groups reunited in December 1915.

• In 1916, the Congress and the Muslim League signed the historic Lucknow Pact.

The Growth of Mass Nationalism

• The First World War altered the economic and political situation in India.

• The government increased taxes on individual incomes and business profits.

• Increased military expenditure and the demands for war supplies led to a sharp rise in prices.

• Gandhiji arrived in India in 1915 from South Africa is well known for leading successful movement against racist regimes.

The Rowlatt Satyagraha

• In 1919 Gandhiji gave a call for a satyagraha against the Rowlatt Act passed by British that curbed freedom of expression and strengthened police powers.

• The Rowlatt Satyagraha turned out to be the first all-India struggle against the British government.

• In April 1919, there were a number of demonstrations and hartals in the country and the government used brutal measures to suppress them.

• The Jallianwala Bagh atrocities, administered by General Dyer in Amritsar on Baisakhi day (13 April), were a part of this repression.

Khilafat agitation and the Non-Cooperation Movement

• The leaders of the Khilafat agitation, Mohammad Ali and Shaukat Ali initiated a full-fledged Non-Cooperation Movement.

• Gandhiji supported their call and urged the Congress to campaign against Jallianwala massacre, the
Khilafat wrong and demand swaraj.

• The Non-Cooperation Movement gained momentum through 1921-22.

• Thousands of students left government- controlled schools and colleges.

• British titles were surrendered and legislatures boycotted.

People’s initiatives

• Different classes and groups, interpreting Gandhiji’s call in their own manner.

• In Kheda, Gujarat, Patidar peasants organised non-violent campaigns against the high land revenue
demand of the British.

• In coastal Andhra and interior Tamil Nadu, liquor shops were picketed.

• In the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, tribals and poor peasants staged a number of “forest satyagrahas”.

• In Sind (now in Pakistan), Muslim traders and peasants were very enthusiastic about the Khilafat call.

• In Bengal too, the Khilafat-Non-Cooperation alliance gave enormous communal unity and strength to the national movement.

• In Punjab, the Akali agitation of the Sikhs sought to remove corrupt mahants– supported by the British.

• In Assam, tea garden labourers demanded a big increase in their wages.

The happenings of 1922-1929

• Mahatma Gandhi abruptly called off the Non-Cooperation Movement when in February 1922 when a crowd of peasants set fire to a police station in Chauri Chaura.

• Two important developments of the mid-1920s were the formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), a Hindu organisation, and the Communist Party of India.

• The decade closed with the Congress resolving to fight for Purna Swaraj (complete independence) in 1929 under the presidentship of Jawaharlal Nehru.

The March to Dandi

• In 1930, Gandhiji declared that he would lead a march to break the salt law.

• Gandhiji and his followers marched from Sabarmati to the coastal town of Dandi where they broke the government law by gathering natural salt found on the seashore, and boiling sea water to produce salt.

• The Government of India Act of 1935 prescribed provincial autonomy and the government announced elections to the provincial legislatures in 1937.

• In September 1939, after two years of Congress rule in the provinces, the Second World War broke out.

Quit India and Later

• Mahatma Gandhi decided to launch 'Quit India' movement against the British in the middle of the Second World War.

• Gandhiji and other leaders were jailed at once but the movement spread.

Towards Independence and Partition

• In 1940 the Muslim League had moved a resolution demanding “Independent States” for Muslims
in the north-western and eastern areas of the country.

•  In 1937, the Congress rejected the League’s wish to form a joint Congress-League government in the United Provinces which annoyed the League.

• At the end of the war in 1945, the British opened negotiations between the Congress, the League and themselves for the independence of India.
→ The talks failed because the League saw itself as the sole spokesperson of India’s Muslims.

• The Congress did well in the “General” constituencies but the League’s success in the seats reserved for Muslims persisted with its demand for “Pakistan”.

• After the failure of the Cabinet Mission, the Muslim League declared mass agitation for winning its Pakistan demand.

• 16 August, 1946 was announced as a “Direct Action Day” by the League.
→ On this day, riots broke out in Calcutta, lasting several days.

• By March 1947 violence spread to different parts of northern India.

• Millions of people were forced to flee their homes.

• Partition also meant that India changed, many of its cities changed, and a new country – Pakistan – was born.


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Notes of Ch 10 India After Independence Class 8th History

May 18, 2019, 11:59 pm
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Notes of Chapter 10 India After Independence Class 8th History

A New and Divided Nation

• Due to partition, 8 million refugees had come into India from what was now Pakistan.

• There was about 500 princely states each ruled by a maharaja or a nawab, each of whom had to be persuaded to join the new nation.

• There were divisions between high castes and low castes, between the majority Hindu community and Indians who practised other faiths.

A Constitution is Written

• Between December 1946 and November 1949, three hundred Indians had a series of meetings and decided on the formation of the Indian Constitution on 26 January, 1950.

• The features of Indian Constitution:
→ The adoption of universal adult franchise.
→ Guaranteed equality before the law to all citizens, regardless of their caste or religious affiliation.
→ Offered special constitutional rights to the poorest and the most disadvantaged Indian citizens along with the former Untouchables, the adivasis or Scheduled Tribes were also granted reservation in seats and jobs.

• The Constituent Assembly spent many days discussing the powers of the central government versus those of the state governments.

• The Constitution sought to balance claims by providing three lists of subjects: 
→ Union List (subjects such as taxes, defence and foreign affairs): Centre
→ State List (subjects such as education and health): States
→ Concurrent List (subjects such as forests and agriculture): The Centre and the states

• Another major debate in the Constituent Assembly concerned language which ended with Hindi would be the “official language” of India, English would be used in the courts, the services, and communications between one state and another.

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the chairman of the Drafting Committee and under his guidance the document was finalised.

How were States to be Formed?

• A States Reorganisation Commission was set up, which submitted its report in 1956, recommending the redrawing of district and provincial boundaries to form compact provinces of Assamese, Bengali, Oriya, Tamil, Malayalam, Kannada and Telugu speakers respectively.

• The large Hindi-speaking region of north India were broken up into several states.

• In 1960, the bilingual state of Bombay was divided into separate states for the Marathi and Gujarati speakers.

• In 1966, the state of Punjab was divided into Punjab and Haryana, the former for the Punjabi speakers and the latter for the rest.

Planning for Development

• In 1950, the government set up a Planning Commission to help design and execute suitable policies for economic development.

• In 1956, the Second Five Year Plan was formulated which focused strongly on the development of heavy industries such as steel, and on the building of large dams.

The Nation, Sixty Years On

• On 15 August 2007, India celebrated sixty years of its existence as a free nation.

• That India is still united, and that it is still democratic.

• As many as thirteen general elections have been held since Independence, as well as hundreds of state and local elections. 

• There is a free press, as well as an independent judiciary.

• On the other hand, despite constitutional guarantees, the Untouchables or, as they are now referred to, the Dalits, face violence and discrimination.

• The Constitution recognises equality before the law, but in real life some Indians are more equal than others.

NCERT Solutions of Chapter 10 India After Independence

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How, When and Where Class 8 Extra Questions History

May 19, 2019, 3:42 am
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Chapter 1 How, When and Where Class 8 Extra Questions History Social Studies (S.St) Important Questions Answer Included

Very Short Answer Questions:

1. Who was the last Viceroy of India?

Answer

Lord Mountbatten

2. Who prepared the first map and when?

Answer

James Rennel in 1782.

3. Who was James Mill? 

Answer 

He was a Scottish economist and a political philosopher who published a massive three volume work- A History of British India. 

4. How did Mills divide Indian History? 

Answer 

Mills divided Indian History into three periods namely, Hindu, Muslim and British.

5. Why did the British establish botanical gardens?

Answer

To collect plant specimens and information about their uses.

6. Who was the first Governor General of India?

Answer

Warren Hastings

Short Answer Questions (SAQs):

1. Why do we associate history with dates?

Answer

Because there was a time when history was an account of battles and big events. 
• Historians wrote about the year a king was crowned, the year he married, the year he had a child, the year he fought a particular war, the year he died, and the year the next ruler succeeded to the throne.
• For these events specific dates can be determined, and dates continue to be important.

2. The periodisation of Indian history into ‘ancient’, ‘medieval’ and ‘modern’ has its own problems. What are these problems?

Answer

• It is a periodisation that is borrowed from the West where the modern period was associated with the growth of all the forces of modernity – science, reason, democracy, liberty and equality. 
• Medieval was a term used to describe a society where these features of modern society did not exist. 
• Under British rule or in modern period people did not have equality, freedom or liberty. Nor was the period one of economic growth and progress. It is therefore many historians refer to modem period as colonial period. 

3. What do official records not tell? How do we come to know about them?

Answer

Official records do not always help us understand what other people in the country felt, and what lay behind their actions. 
• For that we have diaries of people, accounts of pilgrims and travellers, autobiographies of important personalities, and popular books, etc. that were sold in the local bazaars. 
• With the spread of printing press, newspapers came to be published and issues began to be debated in public. Leaders and reformers wrote to spread their ideas, poets and novelists wrote to express their feelings.

4. How did the British conquer India and establish their rule?

Answer

• The British subjugated local nawabs and rajas.
• They established control over the economy and society collected revenue to meet all their expenses, bought goods they wanted at lower prices and produced crops they needed for export.
• They brought changes in rulers and tastes, customs and practices.

Long Answer Questions (LAQs):

1. Why were surveys carried out under the British Rule in India?

Answer

The British believed that a country had to be properly known before it could be effectively administered. Therefore, by the early nineteenth century detailed surveys were being carried out to map the entire country.:
• They conducted revenue surveys in villages.
• They made efforts to know the topography, the soil quality, the flora, the fauna, the local histories and the cropping pattern.
• They also introduced census operations, held at the interval of every ten years from the end of the 19th century. They prepared detailed records of the number of people in all the provinces of India, noting information on castes, religions and occupation separately.
• The British also carried on several other surveys such as botanical surveys, zoological surveys, archaeological surveys, forest surveys, etc. In this way, they gathered all the facts that were essential for administering a country.

2. Describe how the official records of the British administration helped historians to write about the last 250 years of Indian history.

Answer

The British believed that the act of writing was important. Hence, they got written up every instruction, plan, policy decision, agreement, investigation, etc. Once this was done, things could be properly studied and debated. This conviction produced an administrative culture of memos, notings and reports.
They were very interested in preserving all important documents and letters. For this, they established record rooms attached to all administrative institutions such as the village tahsildar’s office, the collectorate, law courts etc. They also set up archives and museums to preserve important records.
Letters and memos that moved from one branch of the administration to another in the early years of the nineteenth century can still be read in the archives. Historians can also take help from the notes and reports that district officials prepared or the instructions and directives that were sent by officials at the top to the provincial administrators.



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From Trade to Territory Class 8 Extra Questions History

May 19, 2019, 7:20 am
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Chapter 2 From Trade to Territory Class 8 Extra Questions History Social Studies (S.St) Important Questions Answer Included

Very Short Answer Questions:

1. Who was the last of the powerful Mughal rulers?

Answer

Aurangzeb

2. With what purpose did the British originally come to India?

Answer

Trading

3. Who was the ruler of England in 1600?

Answer

Queen Elizabeth I

4. Name a thing produced in India which had a big market in Europe. 

Answer

Fine qualities of cotton and silk (Any One)

5. How did the royal charter empower the East India company?

Answer

Through royal charter, East India company gained sole trading rights with the East.

6. Why did the Battle of Plassey become famous?

Answer

It was the first major victory the Company won in India.

7. When did the British emerge on the political horizon of India? 

Answer

By the second half of the 18th century

8. Who discovered the sea route to India and when? 

Answer

Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, discovered the sea route to India in 1498 C.E.

9. When did Siraj-ud-Daulah become the Nawab of Bengal? 

Answer 

Siraj-ud-Daulah became the Nawab of Bengal in 1756 C.E., after the death of Alivardi Khan.

Short Answer Questions:

1. What led to a fierce battle between the European trading companies? 

Answer

• The competition for Indian silk, cotton, spices among the European companies pushed up the prices at which goods could be purchased which led to reduction of profit. 
• They saw a way to increase profit by eliminating rival companies which led to a fierce battle between the trading companies. 
• They regularly sank each other's ships, blocked routes and prevented rival ships from moving with supplies of goods. Trading posts were also protected with arms and fortifications.

2. Give an account of different European trading companies besides the British East India Company that entered the Eastern markets.

Answer

Different European trading companies were:
• The Portuguese: By the time the first English ships sailed down the West coast of Africa, round the Cape of Good Hope, and crossed the Indian Ocean, the Portuguese had already established their presence in the western coast of India and had their base in Goa.
• The Dutch: By the early 17th century, the Dutch too were exploring the possibilities of trade in the Indian Ocean.
• The French: The French traders soon arrived on the scene for the same purpose.

3. What were the causes of conflict between Siraj-ud-Daulah and the British? 

Answer

• The Company was not paying taxes.
• The Company officials were writing disrespectful letters to the Nawab. 
• The British started deploying forces in Calcutta and in spite of the refusal of the Nawab to allow them to keep their forces there, the British did not with draw them.

Long answer Questions:

1. How did the East India Company begin trade in Bengal?

Answer 

• The East India Company set up first English factory on the banks of the river Hugli in the year 1651 which became the base from which the Company’s traders, known at that time as ‘factors’, operated. 
• The factory had a warehouse where goods for export were stored and it had offices where Company officials set. As trade expanded, the Company persuaded merchants and traders to come and settle near the factory.
• By 1696 the Company began to build a fort around the settlement. Two years later it bribed Mughal officials into giving the Company zamindari rights over three villages. One of these was Kalikata which later developed into a city, known as Calcutta. 
• The Company also persuaded the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb to issue a farman granting the Company the right to trade duty-free. 
• The Company tried continuously to press for more concessions and manipulate existing privileges.



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First Flight Class 10th Extra Questions

May 19, 2019, 10:24 am
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First Flight Class 10th Extra Questions English Important Questions Answer Included

There are lots of NCERT Questions given at the end of each chapter in First Flight textbook however if you want to pass exams with good marks then you need consider extra questions of first flight given here. We have prepared these questions from the important parts of the stories and poems. These questions will also help you in revising chapters. You can easily open extra questions by clicking on the chapter name provided below.

• A Letter to God Extra Questions
• Long Walk to Freedom Extra Questions
• His First Flight Extra Questions
• Black Aeroplane Extra Questions
• From the Diary of Anne Frank Extra Questions
• The Hundred Dresses - I Extra Questions
• The Hundred Dresses - II Extra Questions
• A Baker from Goa Extra Questions
• Coorg Extra Questions
• Tea from Assam Extra Questions
• Mijbil the Otter Extra Questions
• Madam Rides the Bus Extra Questions
• The Sermon at Benares Extra Questions
• The Proposal Extra Questions
• Dust of Snow Extra Questions
• Fire and Ice Extra Questions
• A Tiger in the Zoo Extra Questions
• How to Tell Wild Animals Extra Questions
• The Ball Poem  Extra Questions
• Amanda! Extra Questions
• Animals Extra Questions
• The Trees Extra Questions
• Fog Extra Questions
• The Tale of Custard the Dragon Extra Questions
• For Anne Gregory Extra Questions

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Footprints Without Feet Class 10th Extra Questions

May 19, 2019, 12:27 pm
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Footprints Without Feet Class 10th Extra Questions English Important Questions Answer Included

The supplementary reader footprints without feet can help you in fetching good marks. Other than NCERT Solutions (basic thing), you must practice the stories thoroughly to stand out from the crowd. That's why we have prepared extra questions of Footprints Without Feet which will take your understanding one level up. These questions will cover all the portions of the stories. You can easily browse the questions by clicking on the chapter's name.

• A Triumph of Surgery Extra Questions
• The Theif's Story Extra Questions
• The Midnight Visitor Extra Questions
• A Question of Trust Extra Questions
• Footprints Without Feet Extra Questions
• The Making of a Scientist Extra Questions
• The Necklace Extra Questions
• The Hack Driver Extra Questions
• Bholi Extra Questions
• The Book That Saved the Earth Extra Questions



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